Peatlands in Poland – specificity, resources, conservation

Andrzej Łachacz
Department of Soil Science and Land Reclamation
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn
andrzej.lachacz (at) uwm.edu.pl

Introduction

Environmental role of peatlands is increasingly appreciated. It involves, among others, water retention, regulation of water management and accumulation of organic matter. Specific flora and fauna of peatlands increase the biodiversity of the environment. Peat deposits are natural archives, which store information useful for reconstruction of former climatic conditions, water conditions and vegetation [Tobolski 2000]. However, peatlands are the most threatened habitats because after drainage they undergo unfavorable changes. In Poland, peatlands are traditionally treated as agricultural land (grasslands). An establishment of grassland on a peatland requires drainage, which leads to significant changes in the environment [Brandyk et al. 2008]. Currently, attention is drawn to the rational use of environmental resources. Rational use of peatlands is the use that assures multiple benefits by current and future generations [Joosten and Clarke 2002]. Of course, the benefits should be considered broadly, not only as economic benefits, but also in terms of environmental and social aspects.

General characteristics of peatlands in Poland

In Poland, peatlands are areas in which peat layer is at least 30 cm. An inventory, which was carried out in Poland, covered peatlands larger than 1 ha. On this basis, we know that in Poland there are 50 200 separate peat deposits, which together cover the area of 12 110 km2 – 3.87% of the country area [Dembek et al. 2000]. Small peatlands (<10 ha) prevail, and represent 59.49% of all peat deposits, but they occupy only 3.27% of the total area of peatlands [Jasnowski 1975]. On the basis of ecological conditions, including trophism (fertility), peatlands were divided into fens (low-moor peatlands), transitional peatlands and raised bogs (high-moor peatlands).

In Poland, occurrence of peatlands is depended mainly by relief, and, to some extent, by climatic conditions. In Polish climatic conditions, only in the highest mountains and along the coast, adjacent to the Baltic Sea, rainfall prevails over evaporation and favorable conditions for the formation of bogs occur. Peat bogs (ombrophilous) fed with rainfall waters prevail in these regions. In other regions of Poland, peat is formed in land depressions where water from surrounding areas accumulates. These are fens, occurring in swampy areas, mostly in lake depressions and river valleys [Lipka 2000]. This type of peatlands prevails in Poland and constitutes 93.53% of all peatlands area. In Poland, similarly to other parts of Europe influenced by Pleistocene glaciations, numerous peatlands of lake origin, which were formed as a result of over-growing of lakes, occur [Żurek 1984]. These are post-lacustrine peatlands or are located near the edges of existing lakes and therefore are underlain by thick layers of lake sediments (gyttjas).

In Poland, raised bogs cover the area of only 380 km2, and the number of bog deposits amounts to 4 230 [Dembek et al. 2000]. This means that the average area of raised bog is approximately 9 hectares, which is regarded as small. Raised bogs constitute 3.14% of the total area of all peatlands. The largest raised bogs are located oear the Baltic Sea and some of them are under protection as nature reserves. The industrial exploitation of peat (under license), mainly for horticultural purposes, occurrs on a few raised bogs. Some of bog deposits had already been exploited. Transition peatlands occurring in intermediate conditions between fens and bogs are rare in Poland. They represent only 3.33% of the total area of all peatlands [Dembek et al. 2000].

To sum up, it should be stated that Polish peat resources are small, compared to some northern hemisphere countries. For example, the share of peatlands in the area of Belarus is 14.2%, Sweden 23.1%, Ireland 16.7%, Estonia 22.3%, in Finland to 26.4% [Lappalainen 1996; Ilnicki 2002]. In addition, due to climatic conditions in central and southern part of Poland, the rate of peat accumulation is not as high as in the regions of atlantic climate (north-western Europe) and in north-eastern Europe where the climate is boreal. It should be noted that for the purposes of conservation under the Natura 2000, the area of European Union was divided into nine biogeographical regions (Alpine, Boreal, Atlantic, Continental, Mediterranean, Macaronesian, steppe, Pannonian, Black Sea) on the basis of the relief, climatic conditions and vegetation. Majority part of Poland area (96%) is lying in the Continental region, and only 4% (Karpaty) in Alpine region [http:/natura2000.gdos.gov.pl]. In Poland it is believed that peat is a renewable resource to some extent and only in some certain conditions [Dembek et al. 2004]. Therefore, the Polish attitude to the use and protection of peatlands is different than in the countries which have greater peat deposits.

In Poland, approximately 70% of peatlands area is under permanent grasslands. Forests cover 11.7% of peatlands. This category includes various lands, including swamp forests with high natural value (riparian forests, alder forests, swamp forests), and “secondary” forests growing on the meadows when they are not used. Wastelands occupy 13.8% of peatlands. Most of their area is covered by forests or bushes. Therefore, it can be stated that the forested peatlands (with various state tree stand developments and moisture conditions) in Poland occupy approximately 25% of peatlands. The wastelands include small sites which use and management was not profitable, and peatlands degraded by excessive drainage or unplanned peat exploitation. They are usually covered with bushes, with unregullary formed small post excavation pits. Only larger complexes of post excavation pits, which occupy about 0.3% of peatlands, were recorded. However, most post excavation pits occur as a result of peat extraction for heating purposes by local inhabitants. It is estimated that small post excavation pits occupy 500 km2 in Poland [Ilnicki 2002]. Arable lands occupy only 4.4% of peatlands, as this type of use increases the mineralization of organic matter [Brandyk et al. 2008; Ilnicki 2002].

Disturbance of water conditions is the main threat to peatlands. Anthropogenic transformation of peatlands has been intensified since the eighteenth century. In Poland, as in other European countries, drainage and agricultural management was “expanded” in the second half of the nineteenth century. Drainage works were carried out at 86% of the peatlands area [Lappalainen 1996; Ilnicki and Żurek 1996; Ilnicki 2002]. Since the late 80s of the last century, the intensity of drainage has decreased, simultaneously with an interest in agricultural use of drained peatlands. As a result of negligence of maintenance of drainage systems, the water level has become high, causing secondary peat formation. In many regions, use of peatlands as mowing grasslands was ceased/abandoned/forsaken, leading to a succession of of shrub and tree species [Ilnicki (Eds.) 2002].

Identification of peatlands, carried out since the 50s of the last century, implemented as a geological documentation of peat deposits, gave a general knowledge of these environmental resources. Inventory works were summarized, as well as supplemented and updated in 1991-1994 in a project carried out by the Institute of Land Reclamation and Grassland under the direction of H. Okruszko and with financial support of the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Fisheries, Dutch Government Foundation for Cooperation with Eastern Europe Countries and the substantial assistance of the Institute for Forestry and Nature Research in Wageningen (HJ Verkaar). In order to carry out the works, Poland was divided into 10 regions. The management of regional research teams was given to following persons: R. Kochanowska – Szczecin region of, T. Zaluski – Torun region, H. Piascik H. – Olsztyn region, H. Banaszuk – Bialystok region, P. Ilnicki – Poznan region, L. Kucharski – Lodz region, J. Oświt – Warsaw region, D. Fijałkowski – Lublin region, Z. Denisiuk – Krakow region, K. Pender – Wroclaw region. As a result, a map of peatlands in a scale of 1:100 000, with regard to physico-geografical regionalization as well as existing and planned forms of nature protection of wetlands, was developed. Three types of peatlands, wetlands on mineral soils, and the current major groups of plant communities were marked in the map. Regional syntheses which include wetland vegetation, phytosociological tables, natural valorization of wetlands and a catalog of sites of special natural value, were also developed. The summary report, containing synthetic data about Polishon peatlands [Okruszko (Eds.), 1996] and regional elaborations, eg [Ilnicki 1996, 1999], were also published.

For some regions of the country, monographic descrptions of peatlands were developed. Their characteristics is included in a book of Ilnicki [2002], therefore only examples of selected studies of Borowiec 1990; Dembek 2000; Herbichowa 1998; Jasnowska and Jasnowski 1981; Jasnowski 1962, 1990; Jasnowski et al. 1968, Lipka 1973; Łachacz 2000; Marek 1965; Marek and Pałczyński 1962; Okruszko 1955; Okruszko (Eds.) 1991, Olkowski 1972; Oświt 1973; Pałczyński 1975; Tobolski 2003, 2006; Tołpa 1949; Wołejko 2000; Żurek 1991 have been listed. In addition to regional elaborations, also synthetic works concerning entire Poland [Dembek et al. 2000; Jasnowski 1975, Lipka 1984; Tolpa et al. 1967, Zurek 1987, 1994] were published.

Conservation of peatlands in Poland

Peatlands, as geographical space elements, representing certain values and performing multiple functions, are subjects to numerous of regulations. These regulations were developed for the need of protection undrained peatlands (preserved in the state close to natural), especially raised bogs and transitional peatlands, rare in the country. It is estimated that approximately 18% of peatlands area is covered by peat-forming plant communities and accumulation of peat occurrs in these sites [Ilnicki 2002]. Among spacial forms of nature protection, most important for the conservation of peatlands are national parks, nature reserves, landscape parks and protected landscape areas [Walczak et al. 2001]. The studies carried out by Żurek [2006] proved that there are 415 nature reserves with various peatlands in Poland, 124 of them are peatland nature reserves where the protection is focused on peatlands.

In Poland, since 1991 new forms of nature protection are developed – ecological sites, documentation sites of biotope and natural-landscape associations. They are approved by local authorities and have lower value than nature reserves. Nowadays, approximately 27.7% of peatlands area is covered by various forms of nature conservation in Poland [Ilnicki 2002]. Peatlands are also protected under international agreements and conventions. The most important is the Convention signed in 1971 in Ramsar (Iran), which concerns the protection of wetlands of international importance especially as waterfowl habitat. So far, under the Convention, Poland has reported 13 sites under protection. Total Polish areas included in the list of the Ramsar Convention amount to more than 125 thousand hectares.

Under the current European Union Council Directive 79/409/EEC of 1979 on the protection of wild birds and Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 1992 on the protection of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora, which have been transferred to Polish law, to the Nature Conservation Act of 16 April 2004, European ecological network "Natura 2000" has been created. In Poland, "Natura 2000" includes numerous peatlands of high natural value [Wolejko et al. 2005]. It should be noted that the Habitat Directive of 1992, was developed from the standpoint of the natural environment of Western Europe and underlines the habitats of raised bogs, which are few in Poland, and almost completely ignores fens, which prevail in our country. As an example, a number of sedge habitats are not included in the Habitat Directive, which are characteristic for natural river valleys, including Biebrza valley – higly appreciated throughout Europe.

Many valuable peatlands is found within the various categories of protected areas. Nevertheless, the number and area of petland nature reserves should be increased, as well as ecological sites and other forms of nature protection areas. Choosing peatlands for various forms conservation should be proceeded by the following principles:
• Protect all raised bogs and transitional peatlands with preserved natural vegetation,
• Protect peatlands covered with rare plant communities,
• Protect peatlands with rare and endangered plant species sites,
• Protect peatlands that were studied in the past (stratigraphy, palynology, phytosociology),
• Protect peatlands which are important as animals habitats (waterfowl, pond turtles, etc.), regardless of the condition of their vegetation,
• Protection of peatlands should be adapted to regional conditions.

An approach to the use and protection of peatlands in Poland has been changing. After the Second World War, a great interest in the exploitation of peat for energy purposes occurred. The projects of large peat-fired power plants werer developed. Fortunately, their implementation did not take place, and the intensified use of other fossil energy sources (bituminous coal, lignite) occurred. In the late 50s and 60s of the twentieth century, peatlands were treated as agricultural land which were of interest of the Ministry of Agriculture [ordinance of Minister of Agriculture of 30 July 1960]. Another important legislation for the protection of peatlands was the Act of 26 March 1982 on the protection of agricultural and forestry lands [Act No. 11, item 79]. This Act included the "peatlands being wastlands" into agricultural land, next to arable land, grassland and forest land. It was also specified that the exploitation of peat deposits can be made for agricultural and forest, and medical (borowina) purposes. Thus, it was forbidden to exploit peat for energy purposes, including firewood from "(...) the extraction of peat from their own land for their farm or house" – by the Act of 22 May 1958 on the management of peat lands [Act No. 31, item 137].

Nowadays, in Poland, peatlands are protected under several legislations. Peatlands are treated as agricultural land [Act on the Protection of agricultural and forest land of 3 February 1995, Act of April 16, 2004 on the Protection of Nature]. Their use for purposes other than agricultural or forestry is very limited and requires a relevant permit. The Act "Geological and Mining Law" of 4 February 1994 [Act No. 27, item 96] includes peat and beneath-peat sediments (gyttjas) into the common minerals and treats them as property of the Country(skarb państwa). The rules have clearly orientated the possibility of exploitation of peat to wastelands as well as non-agricultural and non-forest lands in local development plans, with the prior consent of the relevant Regional Geologist. Exploitation of peat must be proceeded by obtaining a license, and therefore must be preceded by a documentation of geological and environmental impact assessment. After the exploitation the peatland area must be reclaimed (reclamation rules are established before obtaining the license). Geological supervision of the exploitation is made by the Ministry of Environment.

Conclusions

1. The specificity of Polish peatlands influenced the activity of each PKN-MST committee. The greatest interest concerned agriculturally used fens.

2. In Poland, fens prevail, which have been drained for a long time and used meadows. It is estimated that approximately 70% of peatlands in Poland is used as meadows.

3. In light of the legislations, peatlands in Poland are treated as agricultural land. Since 1982 exploitation of peat for energy purposes is forbidden, for both industrial and individual needs.

4. Peat resources in Poland are small, especially when raised bogs are taken into consideration as a substrate for horticultural purposes. Therefore, our country is an importer of this substrate.

5. The aim of drainage network in the areas under various forms of protections and in meadow areas left by farmers should be verified. The indirect effect of drainage on wet and swamp forests should be limited.

6. Water conditions of peatlands and succession of vegetation should be monitored.

7. It is still necessary to increase the number and area of peatlands under legal protection.

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